Errors and strategies in language acquisition

hallucinations and strategies in speech communication acquisitionError subject areaWhy Correction is NecessaryCorrection is necessary. The argument that students just carry to use the lecture and the rest will come by itself seems rather weak. Students come to us to get wind them. If they want only conversation, they will probably inform us or, they might just go to a chat room on the Internet. Obviously students need to be correct as part of the learning experience. However, students also need to be encouraged to use the language. It is true that correcting students while they are trying their scoop to use the language clear often discourage them. The virtually satisfactory solution of all is make correction an natural cultivate. Correction can be employ as a follow-up to any given class activity. However, correction sessions can be used as a valid activity in and of themselves. In other words, teachers can set up an activity during which each mistake (or a specific type of mistake) will be corrected. Students know that the activity is going to focus on correction, and accept that fact. However, these activities should be kept in balance with other, more free-form, activities which give students the opportunity to express themselves without having to worry about existence corrected every other word.It is to S.P. Corder that Error Analysis owes its place as a scientific method in linguals. As Rod Ellis cites (p. 48), it was not until the mid-seventies that EA became a know part of applied linguistics, a rebelment that owed much to the work of Corder. Before Corder, linguists observed learners errors, divided them into categories, tried to see which ones were common and which were not, hardly not much financial aid was drawn to their eccentric in heartbeat language acquisition. It was Corder who demonstrateed to whom information about errors would be abetful (teachers, researchers, and students) and how.There are galore(postnominal) major concepts introduced by S. P. Corder in his article The significance of learners errors, among which we encounter the followingIt is the learner who determines what the input is. The teacher can present a linguistic form, however this is not necessarily the input, but simply what is available to be learned.Keeping the above point in mind, learners needs should be considered when teachers/linguists plan their syllabuses. Before Corders work, syllabuses were ground on theories and not so much on learners needs.Mager (1962) points out that the learners built-in syllabus is more efficient than the teachers syllabus. Corder adds that if much(prenominal) a built-in syllabus exists, because learners errors would confirm its existence and would be systematic.Corder introduced the note between systematic and non-systematic errors. Unsystematic errors occur in ones native language Corder calls these mistakes and states that they are not significant to the process of language learning. He keeps the term errors for the systematic ones, which occur in a second language.Errors are significant in three ways to the teacher they show a students progress to the researcher they show how a language is acquired, what strategies the learner uses. to the learner he can learn from these errors.When a learner has made an error, the most efficient way to teach him the correct form is not by simply giving it to him, but by letting him discover it and test contrastive hypotheses. (This is derived from Carrolls proposal (Carroll 1955, cited in Corder), who suggested that the learner should find the correct linguistic form by searching for it.Many errors are due to that the learner uses structures from his native language. Corder claims that possession of ones native language is helpful. Errors in this case are not inhibitory, but rather evidence of ones learning strategies.The above insights played a significant role in linguistic research, and in item in the approach linguists t ook towards errors. Here are some of the areas that were rund by Corders workSTUDIES OF LEARNER ERRORSCorder introduced the distinction between errors (in competence) and mistakes (in realizeance). This distinction directed the attention of researchers of SLA to competence errors and bring home the bacond for a more saturated framework. Thus, in the 1970s researchers started examining learners competence errors and tried to explain them. We find studies such as Richardss A non-contrastive approach to error analysis (1971), where he identifies sources of competence errors L1 transfer results in interference errors incorrect (incomplete or over-generalized) application of language rules results in intralingual errors construction of wrong(p) hypotheses in L2 results in developmental errors.Not all researchers have agreed with the above distinction, such as Dulay and Burt (1974) who proposed the following three categories of errors developmental, interference and unique. Stenson (1 974) proposed another category, that of induce errors, which result from incorrect instruction of the language.As most research methods, error analysis has weaknesses (such as in methodology), but these do not diminish its grandness in SLA research this is why linguists such as Taylor (1986) reminded researchers of its importance and suggested ways to overcome these weaknesses.As mentioned antecedently, Corder noted to whom (or in which areas) the study of errors would be significant to teachers, to researchers and to learners. In addition to studies concentrating on error categorization and analysis, various studies concentrated on these three different areas. In other words, research was conducted not only in order to understand errors per se, but also in order to use what is learned from error analysis and apply it to improve language competence.Such studies take on Kroll and Schafers Error-Analysis and the Teaching of Composition, where the authors demonstrate how error analysi s can be used to improve writing skills. They analyze possible sources of error in non-native-English writers, and attempt to provide a process approach to writing where the error analysis can help achieve better writing skills.These studies, among many an(prenominal) others, show that thanks to Corders work, researchers recognized the importance of errors in SLA and started to examine them in order to achieve a better understanding of SLA processes, i.e. of how learners acquire an L2.STUDIES OF L1 INFLUENCE ON SLAVarious researchers have concentrated on those errors which demonstrate the influence of ones native language to second language acquisition. Before Corders work, interference errors were regarded as inhibitory it was Corder who pointed out that they can be facilitative and provide information about ones learning strategies (point 7, listed above). Claude Hagge (1999) is a supporter of this concept and he mentions it in his book The child between both languages, dedicate d to childrens language education. harmonise to Hagge, interference between L1 and L2 is observed in children as well as in adults. In adults it is more unambiguous and increases continuously, as a monolingual person gets older and the structures of his first language get stronger and impose themselves more and more on any other language the adult wishes to learn. In contrast, as regards children, interference features will not become permanent unless the child does not have satisfactory exposure to L2. If there is sufficient exposure, then instead of reaching a point where they can no longer be corrected (as often happens with phonetics features), interference features can be slow eliminated. Hagge stresses that there is no reason for worry if interference persists more than expected. The teacher should know that a child that is in the process of acquiring a second language will subconsciously invent structures influenced by knowledge he already possesses. These hypotheses he f orms may constitute errors. These errors, though, are wholly natural we should not expect the child to acquire L2 structures immediately (p. 81).In addition to studies of L1 transfer in general, there have been numerous studies for specific language pairs. Thanh Ha Nguyen (1995) conducted a case study to demonstrate first language transfer in Vietnamese learners of English. He examined a peculiar(prenominal) language form, to wit oral competence in English past tense making. He tried to determine the role of L1 transfer in the acquisition of this English linguistic feature as a function of age, time of exposure to English, and place and purpose of learning English.The influence of L1 on L2 was also examined by Lakkis and Malak (2000) who concentrated on the transfer of Arabic prepositional knowledge to English (by Arab students). Both positive and negative transfer were examined in order to help teachers identify problematic areas for Arab students and help them understand where transfer should be encouraged or avoided. In particular, they concluded that an instructor of English, whose native language is Arabic, can use the students L1 for structures that use equivalent prepositions in both languages. On the other hand, whenever there are verbs or expressions in the L1 and L2 that have different structures, that take prepositions, or that have no equivalent in one of the languages, instructors should point out these differences to their students.Not only was L1 influence examined according to language pair, but according to the type of speech introduced (written vs. oral). Hagge (p. 33) discusses the influence of L1 on accent he notes that the ear acts like a filter, and after a critical age (which Hagge claims is 11 years), it only accepts sounds that get going to ones native language. Hagge discusses L1 transfer in order to convince readers that there is indeed a critical age for language acquisition, and in particular the acquisition of a native-like a ccent. He uses the example of the French language, which includes complex vowel sounds, to demonstrate that after a critical age, the acquisition of these sounds is not possible thus, learners of a foreign language will only use the sounds existing in their native language when producing L2 sounds, which may often obstruct communication.STUDIES OF CORRECTIVE FEEDBACKCorder elaborated on Carrolls work to show that the most efficient way to teach a student the correct linguistic form is to let him test various hypotheses and in conclusion find the right form (point 6, listed above). In these steps, Hagge points out the importance of self correction (p. 82-83). According to Hagge, it is useful to always perform an error analysis based on written tests administered by the teacher, but without informing the student of the purpose of the test. On that basis, self-correction is preferable to correction by the teacher, particularly if the latter is done in a severe or intimidating way. Se lf correction is even more efficient when it is done with the help of childrens classmates. According to teachers, the younger the children, the greater the cooperation among them and the less aggressive or intimidating the department of corrections. Hagge dedicates a section in his book to the importance of treating errors in a positive way. In this section, titled The teacher as a good listener, he notes that it is useless, if not harmful, to treat errors as if they were diseases or pathological situations which moldiness be eliminated, especially if this treatment becomes discouraging, as occurs when teachers lose their patience because of childrens numerous errors. This, of course, does not mean that corrections should be avoided after all it is the teachers duty to teach the rules of the L2. plainly the correction of every error as soon as it occurs is not recommended. The justification that Hagge offers is the following the linguistic message that the child tries to produce i s a sequence of elements which are interdependent immediate corrections which interrupt this message tend to produce negative consequences, even to the less sensitive children such consequences include anxiety, fear of making an error, the development of avoidance strategies, reduced motivation for participation in the classroom, omit of interest for learning, reduced will for self correction, and lack of trust towards the teacher. Esser (1984, cited in Hagge) also made a similar point repetitive and immediate corrections, he noted, may cause sensitive children to develop aggressive behavior towards their classmates or teacher. Thus, Hagge concludes, correction must not be applied by the teacher unless errors obstruct communication. This is the main measuring rod for error correction (i.e. obstruction of communication) presented by Hagge however there have been studies which examined such criteria in greater detail, such as Freiermuths L2 Error Correction Criteria and Techniques ( 1997). Freiermuth accepts Corders view (point 6) and proposes criteria for error correction in the classroom. These criteria are exposure, seriousness, and students needs.In the case of exposure, Freiermuth claims that when a child creates language (for example, when he tries to express an idea by using a linguistic form he has not yet acquired), he will most likely make errors correcting these errors will be futile because the learner is not aware of them. Thus, error correction would result in the acquisition of the correct form only if the learner has been previously exposed to that particular language form.As regards the seriousness criterion, Freiermuth claims that the teacher must determine the gravity of an error before deciding whether he should correct it or not. Here Freiermuth sets a criterion which agrees with that of Hagges the error, he states, must impede communication before it should be considered an error that necessitates correction. But what constitutes a seriou s error? Which errors are those which should not be corrected? As an examples of non-serious errors, Freiermuth mentions those errors which occur due to learners nervousness in the classroom, due to their stress or the pressure of having to produce accurately a linguistic form in the L2. These errors can occur even with known structures in that case, they are not of serious nature and are similar to what Corder called mistakes. Here over again we see Corders influence in error analysis, and in particular in the distinction between errors and mistakes. Freiermuth goes on to suggest a hierarchy of errors (according to seriousness) to help teachers fall which errors should be corrected Errors that significantly impair communication are at the top of the list, followed by errors that occur frequently, errors that reflect misunderstanding or incomplete acquisition of the underway classroom focus, and errors that have a highly stigmatizing effect on the listeners. He also clarifies wh at can cause stigmatization profound pronunciation errors, or errors of familiar forms.Another important criterion that must be considered by the teacher is individual students needs. The importance of this factor is mentioned in Corder, who in turn notes that this idea had been suggested previously by Carroll (1955, cited in Corder 1967) and Ferguson (1966, cited in Corder 1967). Each student is different and thus may react differently to error correction. We infer from Freiermuths claim that the teacher must perform two main labor movements first, assess some specific character traits of students, such as self-confidence and language acquisition capability. Freiermuth agrees with Walz (1982, cited in Freiermuth) that self-confident, capable students can profit from even minor corrections, while struggling students should receive correction only on major errors. This claim agrees with Esser and Hagges claim that repetitive corrections are likely to decrease motivation it is reason able to accept that students who lack self-confidence will be stigmatized to a greater degree than confident students.The teachers second task, according to Freiermuth, is to listen to learners L2 utterances in order to determine where errors occur (i.e. which linguistic forms cause students difficulties), their frequency, and their gravity (according to the severity criteria mentioned above). Then the teacher can combine the termination of these tasks and decide on correction techniques for individual students.A different approach to error correction was suggested by Porte (1993), who stressed the importance of self-correction. Porte refers to Corders distinction of errors and mistakes and points out that many students do not know the difference. It is important, Porte notes, that students know how to identify an error in order to avoid it in the future. She agrees with Corder that it is more efficient for learners to correct themselves than be corrected by the teacher, and goes o n to suggest a four-step approach for self-correction. This approach consists of questions that the teacher provides to students. After writing an essay, students should read it four times, each time trying to do the questions included in each of the four steps. Thus, in each re-reading task (each step) they concentrate on a different aspect of their essay. In brief, the first task asks them to highlight the verbs and check the tenses in the second task students concentrate on prepositions the third task requires them to concentrate on nouns (spelling, agreement between subject and verb) ultimately in the fourth task students should try to correct potential personal mistakes. Porte also offers some clarification of what is meant by personal mistakes, in order to help the students identify them.The studies mentioned above are only a few examples that demonstrate how S. Pit Corders work influenced the area of error analysis in linguistics. The concepts that Corder introduced directe d researchers attention to specific areas of error analysis they helped linguists realize that although errors sometimes obstruct communication, they can often facilitate second language acquisition also they played a significant role in training teachers and helping them identify and classify students errors, as well as helping them construct correction techniques.REFERENCESCorder, S. P. 1967. The significance of learners errors. global Review of Applied Linguistics 5 161-9.Dulay, H., and Burt, M., Errors and strategies in child second language acquisition, TESOL Quarterly 8 129-136, 1974.Ellis, R., The Study of Second Language Acquisition, Oxford University Press, 1994.Esser, U., Fremdsprachenpsychologische Betrachtungen zur Fehlerproblematic im Fremdsprachenunterricht, Deutsch als Fremdsprache, 4151-159, 1984, (cited in Hagge 1999).Freiermuth, M. R., L2 Error Correction Criteria and Techniques, The Language Teacher Online 22.06, http//langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/jalt/pub/tlt/97/sep /freiermuth.html, 1997.Hagge, C. Lenfant aux deux langues (The child between two languages), Greek translation, Polis editions, Athens 1999. (Original publication Editions Odile Jacob, 1996).Kroll, Barry, and John C. Schafer. Error-Analysis and the Teaching of Composition, College Composition and Communication 29 242-248, 1978Lakkis, K. and Malak, M. A.. Understanding the Transfer of Prepositions. FORUM, Vol 38, No 3, July-September 2000. (Online edition http//exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol38/no3/p26.htm)Mager, R.F. Preparing Instructional Objectives, Fearon Publishers, Palo Alto, CA 1962.Nguyen, Thanh Ha. premier Language Transfer and Vietnamese Learners Oral Competence in English Past Tense Marking A Case Study., Master of Education (TESOL) research Essay, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia1995.Porte, G. K., Mistakes, Errors, and Blank Checks, FORUM, Vol 31, No 2, p. 42, January-March 1993. (Online edition http//exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol31/no1/p42.htm)Richard s, J., A non-contrastive approach to error analysis, English Language Teaching 25 204-219, 1971.Stenson, N. Induced errors in Shumann and Stenson (eds.), 1974, cited in Ellis (p. 60).Taylor G., Errors and explanations, Applied Linguistics 7 144-166, 1986.